Process for Preparing Membranes

ABSTRACT

A process for preparing an ion-exchange membrane having a textured surface profile comprising the steps (i) and (ii):
     (i) applying a radiation-curable composition to a membrane in a patternwise manner; and   (ii) irradiating and thereby curing the radiation-curable composition present on the membrane;   wherein the radiation-curable composition comprises:   a) 10 to 65 wt % of curable ionic compound(s) comprising one ethylenically unsaturated group;   b) 3 to 60 wt % of crosslinking agent(s) comprising at least two ethylenically unsaturated groups and having a number average molecular weight below 800;   c) 0 to 70 wt % of inert solvent(s);   d) 0 to 10 wt % of free-radical initiator(s); and   e) 0.5 to 25 wt % of thickening agent(s).

This invention relates to membranes, to a process for their preparationand to the use of such membranes, e.g. in electrodialysis or reverseelectrodialysis, and to radiation-curable compositions.

In reverse electrodialysis (“RED”), electricity may be generated in anenvironmentally friendly manner from the mixing of two ionic solutionshaving different ionic concentrations, e.g. from mixing salty sea waterand fresh or brackish water. This technique uses an RED unit comprisinga membrane stack having alternating cation and anion exchange membranesand an electrode at each end of the stack. Each cation and anionexchange membrane, together with the space between these membranes, isoften called a “cell” and membrane stacks usually comprise many cells.Typically there is a first pathway through the reverse electrodialysisunit for a concentrated ionic solution, and a second pathway through thereverse electrodialysis unit for a dilute ionic solution. When theconcentrated ionic solution is introduced into the first pathway, andthe dilute ionic solution is introduced into the second pathway, solutefrom the concentrated solution in the first pathway passes through themembranes to the dilute solution in the second pathway, this beingaccompanied by the generation of an output electricity across theelectrodes at the ends of the stack. In existing stacks the flowdirection through the stacks is usually co-current or counter-current.

The voltage generated by the concentration difference across each pairof membranes is low, but this voltage is multiplied by increasing thenumber of alternating cation and anion exchange membranes that separatethe two solutions in the membrane stack.

Electrodialysis (“ED”) uses similar membrane stacks to those used in REDbut in this case electricity is applied across electrodes at each end ofthe stack in order to remove unwanted ions from one of the ionicsolutions. ED may be used, for example, to prepare potable water fromsalty sea water.

The abovementioned RED and ED techniques both require membrane stackscomprising numerous anion and cation exchange membranes arranged in analternate manner. Thus an industry has built up which provides anion andcation exchange membranes.

The problems with existing membrane stacks include the cost of theirmanufacture and the cost of ongoing maintenance. The membranes in thestack can become fouled over time, resulting in down-time for cleaning.Embossing is a possible technique to texture membranes but only when themembranes are thick and rigid.

Although textured membranes have been described in earlier publications,they are not generally available from commercial sources, possiblybecause of the difficulty in producing textured membranes. There is aneed for a fast and efficient process for manufacturing ionicallycharged membranes having a textured surface profile.

According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided aprocess for preparing an ion-exchange membrane having a textured surfaceprofile comprising the steps (i) and (ii):

-   (i) applying a radiation-curable composition to a membrane in a    patternwise manner; and-   (ii) irradiating and thereby curing the radiation-curable    composition present on the membrane;-   wherein the radiation-curable composition comprises:-   a) 10 to 65 wt % of curable ionic compound(s) comprising one    ethylenically unsaturated group;-   b) 3 to 60 wt % of crosslinking agent(s) comprising at least two    ethylenically unsaturated groups and having a number average    molecular weight (“NAMW”) below 800;-   c) 0 to 70 wt % of inert solvent(s);-   d) 0 to 10 wt % of free-radical initiator(s); and-   e) 0.5 to 25 wt % of a thickening agent(s).

Preferably the radiation-curable composition is free from catalysts,e.g. free from noble metal particles (e.g. particles comprisingplatinum, palladium, osmium, iridium, rhodium and/or ruthenium particlesand alloys comprising any of the foregoing.

FIG. 1 is a schematic representation of step (i) of the present process.

FIG. 2 is a schematic representation of an ion-exchange membrane havinga textured surface profile on both sides, prepared by the presentprocess.

FIGS. 3a and 3b illustrate meshes which may be used to prepare screensfor application in step (i) of the present process.

In the top half of FIG. 1, a radiation-curable composition (3) is beingforced against a screen (2) using a squeegee (9). A part of thecomposition (3) passes through holes (4) in screen (2) and onto membrane(1). In the bottom half of FIG. 1, one can see the membrane (1) carryingthe part of the radiation-curable composition (3) which has passedthrough the screen resulting in a pattern corresponding to the holes inthe screen.

FIG. 2 illustrates an ion exchange membrane (5) having a texturedsurface profile on both sides. The texture takes the form of regular,equally sized conical protrusions (7), resembling a double-sided Lego™board. In FIG. 2 the Texture % is <50% (Texture % is defined below).

FIGS. 3a and 3b are magnified areas of non-woven and a woven mesheswhich may be used in step (i) of the present process.

In step (i) the radiation-curable composition may be applied to themembrane in a patternwise manner using any desired technique, forexample by a printing method. Suitable printing methods include inkjetprinting, offset printing, gravure printing and especially screenprinting.

Printing enables the radiation-curable composition to be applied to themembrane in a patternwise manner in step (i) and the radiation-curablecomposition can then be cured in step (ii), e.g. to “lock in” thethree-dimensional pattern so created.

The preferred screen-printing method for applying the radiation-curablecomposition to the membrane in a patternwise manner comprises applyingthe radiation-curable composition to one side of a screen such that apart of the radiation-curable composition passes through openings in thescreen and a part of the radiation-curable composition is blocked by thescreen and remains on the side of the screen to which it was applied.Typically a printing pressure is applied to the radiation-curablecomposition in order to force a part of the radiation-curablecomposition through openings in the screen and onto the membrane on theopposite side of the screen. The printing pressure may be applied by anysuitable means, for example by means of a squeegee or blade, e.g. a“fill blade”. The squeegee or blade may be moved across the screen,forcing the radiation-curable composition through openings in thescreen.

The screen usually comprises a mesh, e.g. a woven or non-woven mesh, andmay be formed of any suitable substance (e.g. paper, plastic, or metalor two or more thereof). The mesh comprises openings which allow theradiation-curable composition to pass through and deposit onto themembrane to provide the desired surface profile.

A woven mesh typically comprises a network of wires or threads with gapsbetween the wires or threads through which the composition may pass(e.g. as illustrated in FIG. 3b ).

Alternatively the screen may comprise a non-woven mesh, as illustratedin FIG. 3a . Screens comprising a non-woven mesh may be prepared by aprocess comprising electrolytically forming a metal screen by forming ina first electrolytic bath a screen skeleton upon a matrix provided witha separating agent, stripping the formed screen skeleton from the matrixand subjecting the screen skeleton to an electrolysis in a secondelectrolytic bath in order to deposit metal onto said skeleton. Thistechnique can be used to prepare non-woven metal screens for screenprinting with various mesh sizes (e.g. from 75 to over 350), thicknesses(e.g. from about 50 to more than 300 micrometer), and hole diameters(e.g. from 25 micrometer and greater) and thus various amounts of openarea (e.g. from about 10 to about 55%), texture thicknesses (e.g. fromabout 5 to more than 350 micrometer thick) and resolutions (e.g. fromabout 90 to 350 micrometer). Indeed, the use of non-woven screens in thepresent process can result in improved screen lifetime, sturdiness andstability, resistance to wrinkling with virtually no breakages or damageduring press set-up or printing. The radiation-curable composition canbe screen-printed onto the membrane in a patternwise manner in step (i)and the printed radiation-curable composition may then be cured in step(ii).

The screen can be reused to repeatedly and rapidly produce texturedion-exchange membranes. Thus in a preferred aspect the present inventionthe process is a continuous process.

In a preferred embodiment the process is a continuous process whereinthe radiation-curable composition is applied to the membrane while themembrane is moving. The continuous process may be performed by means ofa manufacturing unit comprising a screen-printing station, anirradiation source for curing the composition, a textured membranecollecting station and a means for moving the membrane from thescreen-printing station to the irradiation source and to the texturedmembrane collecting station.

As examples of ion-exchange membranes there may be mentionedanion-exchange membranes and cation-exchange membranes.

Steps (i) and (ii) may be performed once or more than once, to one orboth sides of a membrane. For example one may create a complex texturedsurface profile by applying more than one pattern of radiation-curablecomposition to one or both sides of the membrane. The radiation-curablecomposition may be different for every different printing step or may bethe same.

When steps (i) and (ii) are performed on both sides of a membrane toprovide an ion-exchange membrane having a textured surface profile onboth sides, the steps are optionally performed on each side of themembrane sequentially (i.e. steps (i) and (ii) are performed on one sideand then on the other side) or simultaneously (i.e. steps (i) and (ii)are performed on both sides of the membrane at the same time).

The screen-printing may use a flat screen or a curved screen, forexample a tubular (cylindrical) screen. Tubular screens are particularlyuseful for performing the present process by rotary screen-printing.Thus, in one embodiment, the screen-printing comprises screen-printingthe radiation-curable composition through a tubular screen wherein theradiation-curable composition is applied to the inside of the tubularscreen, optionally using a squeegee or blade. A printing force may beused to force the composition through holes in the screen and onto themembrane or substrate. The tubular screen may be rotated during theprocess in order to continuously apply the radiation curable compositionin a patterned manner to the membrane, e.g. to a reel of the membranewhich is continuously unwound and fed to the rotating screen. Preferablythe screen-printing comprises applying the radiation-curable compositionto the membrane through a rotating, tubular screen, e.g. to a membranewhich is being unwound from a reel. This may be referred to as“reel-to-reel” screen printing. This is a particularly preferred processfor producing textured membranes in a rapid and continuous manner.Alternative processes such as “sheet-to-sheet” and “reel-to-sheet”screen printing may also be used. Suitable screen printing processesother than rotary screen-printing include: flatbed screen-printing(carousel, reel-to-reel or sheet-to-sheet) and rotary-stop-cylinderscreen-printing (reel-to-reel or sheet-to-sheet).

In one embodiment the screen comprises a mesh, typically a meshconstructed from a metal (e.g. nickel or stainless steel) or from atextile material (e.g. a polymeric fabric or a woven textile material).The mesh usually has a regular pattern of openings.

Optionally the screen further comprises a stencil (also called a screenmask). The stencil limits the areas of the screen through which theradiation-curable composition may pass.

Preferred screens comprise a mesh having mesh number of 10 to 2400, morepreferably 50 to 1000, especially 60 to 400. The mesh number is thenumber of openings per inch (2.54 cm). Preferred screens comprise a meshhaving a thickness of 10 to 1000 μm, more preferably 50 to 400 μm. Thesepreferred screens are preferably combined with a stencil. For screensused without a stencil the mesh preferably corresponds to the desiredtextured surface profile and may have a mesh number of, for example, 2to 200, or a pattern that cannot be characterised by a mesh number (e.g.in the case of a non-woven mesh).

The cross-sectional area of the mesh through which the radiation-curablecomposition may pass, relative to the total area of the mesh, i.e. thepercentage of the mesh area that is ‘ink permeable’, is referred to asthe “open area %”. The mesh used in the process of the present inventionpreferably has an open area % of 1 to 80%, more preferably 10 to 70%,especially 30 to 60%.

When the screen printing is performed using a screen comprising astencil, the stencil may be on the side of the screen nearest to themembrane and then the stencil also contributes to the thickness ofradiation-curable composition printed onto the membrane. In this casethe screen (including the stencil) preferably has a thickness of 20 to1000 μm, more preferably 40 to 600 μm.

The component parts of the screen (e.g. the stencil (when present)) andthe mesh can be made from any suitable material, for example aphotosensitive polymer (e.g. an epoxy resin) for the stencil andstainless steel, glass, polyester, e.g. polyethyleneterephthalate, andnylon for the other components of the screen (e.g. the mesh or non-wovensheet material comprising openings).

Examples of commercially available meshes include RotaMesh® (non-wovenmesh), from SPG Prints, The Netherlands, and Screeny Printing Platesfrom Gallus, Switzerland, for Rotary Screen Printing. RotaMesh® meshesinclude 75/40, 75/32, 125/15, 215/25, 215/21, 305/17, 305/13, 305/11,305/8 and 405/17 (the first number is the mesh number and the secondnumber is the open area %). For flatbed screen printing, examples ofsuitable meshes include JMC Monoplan Mesh and Wängi Mesh from Druma, TheNetherlands, stainless steel meshes from Reking, China, and NewmanRoller Mesh® from Stretch Devices, Inc., USA.

In a preferred embodiment the radiation-curable composition applied tothe membrane forms a textured surface profile of (uncured)radiation-curable composition, forming so-called protrusions, has anaverage height (or thickness) of 5 μm to 500 μm, especially 10 μm to 300μm. One may achieve the desired height (or thickness) by the choice ofscreen thickness (e.g. the thickness of the mesh, its open area %,stencil thickness (when used)), the process conditions (e.g. thetemperature and time interval between printing and curing) and theviscosity of the radiation-curable composition.

The resultant surface profile is influenced by a number of factors, forexample the application method, the gap between the screen and themembrane during screen-printing, the squeegee and the pressure appliedby the squeegee or blade. In a preferred embodiment, for flatbed typesof screen-printing the printing is performed such that there is a gapbetween the screen and the membrane or substrate of 0.5 mm to 5 cm. Forrotary screen-printing no gap is used.

Preferably the squeegee (when used) is made of rubber, e.g. neoprene, orpolyurethane and has a Shore A hardness of 50 to 100. Preferably theradiation-curable composition is applied to the screen using a uniformpressure.

The curing in step (ii) is performed when the radiation-curablecomposition is present on the membrane. In this way, the composition maybond to the membrane and provide the desired surface texture thereon.

In step (ii) the composition may be cured by irradiation withelectromagnetic radiation (e.g. ultraviolet light or an electron beam).

The source of radiation may be any source which provides the wavelengthand intensity of radiation necessary to cure the composition. A typicalexample of a UV light source for curing is a D-bulb with an output of600 Watts/inch (240 W/cm) as supplied by Fusion UV Systems. Alternativesare the V-bulb and the H-bulb from the same supplier.

When no photoinitiator is included in the composition, the compositioncan be cured by electron-beam exposure, e.g. using an exposure of 50 to300 keV. Curing can also be achieved by plasma or corona exposure.

During curing, some or all components of the composition polymerise toform the desired surface profile. If desired further curing may beapplied subsequently to finish off, although generally this is notnecessary.

Preferably step (ii) begins within 2 minutes, more preferably within 60seconds, of the composition being applied to the membrane.

Preferably the curing is achieved by irradiating the composition forless than 30 seconds, more preferably less than 10 seconds, especiallyless than 3 seconds, more especially less than 2 seconds. In acontinuous process the irradiation occurs continuously and the speed atwhich the composition moves through the beam of irradiation is mainlywhat determines the time period of irradiation. Preferably theirradiation uses ultraviolet light. Suitable wavelengths are forinstance UV-A (390 to 320 nm), UV-B (320 to 280 nm), UV-C (280 to 200nm) and UV-V (445 to 395 nm), provided the wavelength matches with theabsorbing wavelength of any photoinitiator included in the composition.

Suitable sources of ultraviolet light include mercury arc lamps, carbonarc lamps, low pressure mercury lamps, medium pressure mercury lamps,high pressure mercury lamps, swirlflow plasma arc lamps, metal halidelamps, xenon lamps, tungsten lamps, halogen lamps, lasers andultraviolet light emitting diodes. Particularly preferred areultraviolet light emitting lamps of the medium or high pressure mercuryvapour type. In most cases lamps with emission maxima between 200 and450 nm are particularly suitable.

The energy output of the irradiation source is preferably from 20 to1000 W/cm, preferably from 40 to 500 W/cm, more preferably from 50 to240 W/cm, but may be higher or lower as long as the desired exposuredose can be realized. The exposure intensity is one of the parametersthat can be used to control the extent of curing which can influencesthe final surface profile. Preferably the exposure dose is at least40mJ/cm2, more preferably between 40 and 1500mJ/cm2, most preferablybetween 70 and 900mJ/cm2 as measured using a High Energy UV Radiometer(UV PowerMap™ from EIT, Inc) in the UV-A and UV-B range indicated by theapparatus.

To reach the desired exposure dose at high printing speeds, more thanone UV lamp may be used, so that the composition is irradiated more thanonce.

The thickness of the membrane used in the process (i.e. before thecomposition has been applied thereto), is preferably less than 500 μm,more preferably less than 200 μm, especially between 10 and 150 μm, e.g.between 20 and 100 μm.

Preferably the resultant membrane having a textured surface profile(abbreviated to “textured membrane”) has an ion exchange capacity of atleast 0.3 meq/g, more preferably of at least 0.5 meq/g, especially morethan 1.0 meq/g, based on the total dry weight of the textured membrane.

Preferably the textured membrane has a charge density of at least 20meq/m², more preferably at least 30 meq/m², especially at least 40meq/m², based on the area of a dry membrane.

Preferably textured anion exchange membranes obtained by the presentprocess have a permselectivity for small anions such as Cl⁻ of more than75%, more preferably of more than 80%, especially more than 85% or evenmore than 90%. Preferably textured cation exchange membranes membraneobtained by the present process have a permselectivity for small cationssuch as Na⁺ of more than 75%, more preferably of more than 80%,especially more than 85% or even more than 90%.

Preferably the textured membrane has an electrical resistance less than10 ohm·cm², more preferably less than 5 ohm·cm², most preferably lessthan 3 ohm·cm². Preferably the textured membrane exhibits a swelling byvolume in water of less than 50%, more preferably less than 20%, mostpreferably less than 10%. The degree of swelling can be controlled byselecting appropriate parameters in the irradiation step (ii).

The water uptake of the textured membrane is preferably less than 50%based on weight of dry textured membrane, more preferably less than 40%,especially less than 30%.

Electrical resistance, permselectivity and % swelling in water may bemeasured by the methods described by Dlugolecki et al, J. of MembraneScience, 319 (2008) on pages 217-218.

Typically the textured membrane is substantially non-porous e.g. thepores are smaller than the detection limit of a standard ScanningElectron Microscope (SEM). Thus using a Jeol JSM-6335F Field EmissionSEM (applying an accelerating voltage of 2 kV, working distance 4 mm,aperture 4, sample coated with Pt with a thickness of 1.5 nm,magnification 100,000×, 3° tilted view) the average pore size isgenerally smaller than 5 nm, preferably smaller than 1 nm.

The texture of the textured surface profile preferably takes the form ofprotrusions. The pattern of the protrusions can be varied widely and maybe irregular, although they are preferably regular because this canresult in a textured membrane having uniform permeation propertiesacross at least 90% of its surface. Examples of suitable protrusionsinclude circular cones, multi-angular pyramids (e.g. triangularpyramidal, square pyramidal and hexagonal pyramidal), hemispheres, mesas(e.g. square, triangular and circular mesas), domes, circular truncatedcones, truncated pyramids, diamonds, short ridges, and combinations oftwo or more of the foregoing. An alternative texture takes the form ofribs, e.g. parallel ribs, on one or both sides of the membrane. When thetexture comprises ribs on both sides of the membrane the ribs on eachside of the membrane may have the same or a different orientation to theribs on the other side of the membrane. For example, the direction ofthe ribs on one side of the membrane is optionally the same as ordifferent to the direction of the ribs on the other side of themembrane. When the direction of the ribs on one side of the membrane isdifferent to the direction of the ribs on the other side of the membranethe angle between the directions of the ribs on the two sides of themembrane is preferably from 30 to 150°, more preferably 60 to 120°.

The extent to which the membrane is textured (i.e. the Texture %) may beexpressed by the following equation:

Texture %=(Area of Texture/Total Membrane Area)×100%

wherein:

-   -   Area of Texture is the area of the membrane which extends        outward from the plane of the membrane on the relevant side,        measured where the texture meets the plane of the membrane (e.g.        the base area of protrusions); and    -   Total Membrane Area is the total effective area the relevant        side of the membrane would have if it were flat and not textured        (effective means the area that comes into contact with liquid        when the membrane is in use, i.e. excluding the area of the        membrane which forms the water-tight seal).

The preferred Texture % depends on whether or not the part of themembrane which extends outward from the plane of the membrane (e.g.protrusions) is ionically charged.

When the part of the membrane which extends outward from the plane ofthe membrane is not ionically charged, the Texture % is preferably low,for example less than 25%, more preferably less than 15%, especiallyless than 9%, e.g. 7%, 5%, 4% or 2%.

When the part of the membrane which extends outward from the plane ofthe membrane is ionically conductive (i.e. capable of conducting ions),which is preferred, the Texture % may be higher because the protrusionstypically do not interfere with the ability of the membrane to transportions. Thus when the part of the membrane which extends outward from theplane of the membrane is ionically-conductive, the Texture % ispreferably 1 to 70%, more preferably 2 to 40%, especially 4 to 30%. Forsome embodiments, a low Texture % may be suitable even when the part ofthe membrane which extends outward from the plane of the membrane isionically-conductive, e.g. to reduce fouling. Under these circumstances,the Texture % may be, for example, 21 to 29%, or 11 to 18% or even 6 to9%.

When the membranes are rather stiff and the protrusions are notionically charged, or have a tip which is not ionically conductive, onlya few protrusions are needed. In this case, the Texture % may be verylow, e.g. 1.5 to 4% or even below 1%.

In one embodiment the texture of the textured surface profile comprisesprotrusions which are not ionically conductive, or protrusions whichhave a tip which is not ionically conductive, and the average amount ofsuch protrusions is less than 1 per cm², or alternatively 1.5 to 4 percm2.

Preferably the part of the membrane which extends outward from the planeof the membrane (i.e. the protrusions) is ionically conductive (i.e.ionically charged) because this avoids the so called ‘shadow effect’where the effective surface area of the membrane is reduced. This mayeven enhance the efficiency of the membranes by enlarging the effectiveion-conducting surface area of the membranes relative to the volume ofthe liquid stream.

Thus a relatively large Texture % may be used when the part of themembrane which extends outward from the plane of the membrane isionically-conductive without detrimental effect on the performance ofthe membrane.

Preferably the textured surface profile comprises protrusions which havean average length (L) to average width (W) ratio of 10:1 to 1:10, morepreferably 7:1 to 1:7, especially 5:1 to 1:5, more especially 2.5:1 to1:2.5, when measured at the base of the protrusion. These preferencesarise because better convection and lower blockage problems can often beobtained with the aforementioned L to W ratios than when continuous ribsare used where a particle may completely block the passage of liquidbetween two ribs.

Preferably the textured surface profile comprises protrusions which havean average height (H) of 5 to 500 μm, more preferably 10 to 300 μm. Inone embodiment H is 120 to 300 μm.

In another embodiment, H is 55 to 95 μm, or 15 to 45 μm.

Preferably H is smaller than L and W. This preference arises because itmay reduce membrane swelling and curl when the membrane is used.

Preferably the textured surface profile comprises protrusions at least80% (preferably 100%) of which have a maximum dimension in alldirections (length, width and height) of less than 20 mm. Preferably thetextured surface profile comprises protrusions which have a maximumdimension in all directions (length, width and height) of 0.04 to 10 mm,more preferably 0.05 to 6 mm.

Preferably the textured surface profile comprises protrusions which areseparated from each other by an average of at least 0.1 mm, morepreferably at least 0.5 mm, e.g. by 1, 2, 4, 8 or 12 mm.

The curable ionic compound comprises an anionic group or a cationicgroup. Depending on the pH of the composition, these groups may bepartially or wholly in salt form. The curable ionic compound may berendered curable by the presence of one or more (preferably one and onlyone) ethylenically unsaturated group.

Preferred curable anionic compounds comprise an acidic group, forexample a sulpho, carboxy and/or phosphato group. Preferably the curableanionic compound comprises a sulpho group. The preferred salts arelithium, ammonium, sodium and potassium salts and mixtures comprisingtwo or more thereof.

Examples of curable ionic compounds comprising an anionic group includeacrylic acid, beta carboxy ethyl acrylate, maleic acid, maleic acidanhydride, vinyl sulphonic acid, phosphonomethylated acrylamide,(2-carboxyethyl)acrylamide, 2-(meth)acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonicacid, mixtures comprising two or more thereof and salts thereof.

Preferred curable cationic compounds comprise a quaternary ammoniumgroup. Examples of such compounds include (3-acrylamidopropyl)trimethylammonium chloride, 3-methacrylamidopropyl trimethyl ammoniumchloride, (ar-vinylbenzyl) trimethylammonium chloride,(2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl) trimethylammonium chloride,[3-(methacryloylamino)propyl] trimethyl ammonium chloride,(2-acrylamido-2-methylpropyl) trimethylammonium chloride,3-acrylamido-3-methylbutyl trimethyl ammonium chloride,acryloylamino-2-hydroxypropyl trimethyl ammonium chloride,N-(2-aminoethyl)acrylamide trimethyl ammonium chloride and mixturescomprising two or more thereof.

Preferably the composition comprises 12 to 60 wt %, more preferably 15to 55 wt %, especially 20 to 50 wt %, of curable ionic compound(s).

The preferred ethylenically unsaturated groups are (meth)acrylic groups,more preferably (meth)acrylate or (meth)acrylamide groups, especiallyacrylic groups, e.g. acrylate or acrylamide groups.

Preferably the molecular weight of component b) satisfies the equation:

(W×m)>molecular weight of the crosslinking agent

wherein:

-   m is the number of ethylenically unsaturated groups present in the    crosslinking agent; and m is 2 to 6, more preferably 2 to 4,    especially 2 or 3, more especially 2; and-   W is 350, more preferably 200, especially 100, more especially 85 or    77.

The lower values of W mentioned above are preferred because theresultant crosslinking agents crosslink more efficiently than when W ishigher. Thus preferably the molecular weight of the crosslinking agentis less than or equal to 700 Daltons.

Examples of crosslinking agents which may be used as component b)include (meth)acrylic crosslinking agents, for example tetraethyleneglycol diacrylate, polyethyleneglycol (200) diacrylate, dipropyleneglycol diacrylate, tripropylene glycol diacrylate, propoxylated ethyleneglycol diacrylate, bisphenol A ethoxylate (1.5) diacrylate,tricyclodecane dimethanol diacrylate, propoxylated (3)trimethylolpropane triacrylate, pentaerythriol triacrylate,pentaerythritol tetraacrylate, ethoxylated (4) pentaerythritoltetraacrylate, dipentaerythritol pentaacrylate, and the methacrylicversions of the foregoing.

The term ‘(meth)’ is an abbreviation meaning that the ‘meth’ isoptional, e.g. N,N′-methylene bis(meth)acrylamide is an abbreviation forN,N′-methylene bis acrylamide and N,N′-methylene bis methacrylamide.

Most preferably the crosslinking agent of component b) comprisesacrylamide groups.

Examples of crosslinking agents which may be used as component b) havingfrom two to six acrylamide groups include N,N′-methylene bisacrylamide,N,N′-ethylene bisacrylamide, N,N′-propylene bisacrylamide, N,N′-butylenebisacrylamide, N,N′-(1,2-dihydroxyethylene) bisacrylamide,1,4-diacryloyl piperazine, 1,4-bis(acryloyl)homopiperazine,triacryloyl-tris(2-aminoethyl)amine, triacroyl diethylene triamine,tetra acryloyl triethylene tetramine and1,3,5-triacryloylhexahydro-1,3,5-triazine.

Component b) consists of one or more than one crosslinking agent(preferably one crosslinking agent or 2 to 5 crosslinking agents).Preferably the composition comprises 4 to 55 wt %, more preferably 4 to50 wt %, especially 5 to 40 wt %, more especially 9 to 25 wt % ofcomponent b).

The inclusion of an inert solvent can be useful for reducing theviscosity and/or surface tension of the composition, making the processeasier in some respects and also enhance permeation of the compositionthrough the screen, and for dissolving the solid components of thecomposition.

The inert solvent may be any solvent which does not copolymerise withcomponent a) or b) during the process. An inert solvent comprising aninert organic solvent and water is advantageous, especially where someor all of the inert organic solvent is water-miscible. The water isuseful for dissolving component a) and the inert organic solvent isuseful for dissolving organic components of the composition.

In one embodiment, the inert solvent comprises at least 50 wt % water,more preferably at least 70 wt % water, relative to the total amount ofinert solvent. Thus the inert solvent preferably comprises less than 30wt % inert organic solvent and any remaining inert solvent is water. Inone embodiment the composition is free from inert organic solvents,providing environmental advantages due to the complete absence oforganic inert solvents.

Preferably the composition comprises 5 to 50 wt %, more preferably 6 to45 wt %, especially 10 to 35 wt % of component c). In one embodimentjust enough inert solvent is used to dissolve the components of thecomposition, e.g. the amount of solvent is no more than 5 wt % more thanis necessary to dissolve the rest of the composition at the temperatureat which the composition is applied to the membrane. This has theadvantage of enhancing permselectivity of the textured membrane andreducing the swelling of the protrusions.

Preferred inert organic solvents include C₁₋₄-alcohols (e.g. mono olssuch as methanol, ethanol and propan-2-ol); diols (e.g. ethylene glycoland propylene glycol); triols (e.g. glycerol)); carbonates (e.g.ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, diethylcarbonate, di-t-butyl dicarbonate and glycerin carbonate); dimethylformamide; acetone; N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone; and mixtures comprisingtwo or more of the foregoing. A particularly preferred organic solventis propan-2-ol.

In one embodiment the inert organic solvent has a low boiling point,e.g. a boiling point below 100° C. Inert solvents having a low boilingpoint can be easily removed by evaporation, potentially avoiding theneed for a washing step for removal of the solvent.

In one embodiment the composition is free from free-radical initiators.When the composition is free from free-radical initiators it may becured using electron beam radiation.

Preferably the composition comprises 0 or 0.01 to 10 wt %, morepreferably 0.05 to 5 wt %, especially 0.1 to 2 wt %, of component d).The composition may comprise one or more than one photoinitiator ascomponent d).

For acrylamides, diacrylamides, and higher-acrylamides, type Iphotoinitiators are preferred. Examples of type I photoinitiators are asdescribed in WO 2007/018425, page 14, line 23 to page 15, line 26, whichare incorporated herein by reference thereto. Especially preferredphotoinitiators include alpha-hydroxyalkylphenones, e.g.2-hydroxy-2-methyl-1-phenyl propan-1-one and2-hydroxy-2-methyl-1-(4-tert-butyl-) phenylpropan-1-one, andacylphosphine oxides, e.g. 2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl-diphenylphosphineoxide, and bis(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl)-phenylphosphine oxide.

When a photoinitiator is present in the composition, preferably apolymerization inhibitor is also included (e.g. in an amount of below 2wt %). This is useful to prevent premature curing of the compositionduring, for example, storage. Suitable inhibitors include hydroquinone,hydroquinone mono methyl ether, 2,6-di-t-butyl-4-methylphenol,4-t-butyl-catechol, phenothiazine,4-oxo-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinoloxy, free radical,4-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinoloxy, free radical,2,6-dinitro-sec-butylphenol, tris(N-nitroso-N-phenylhydroxylamine)aluminum salt, Omnistab™ IN 510 and mixtures comprising two or morethereof.

The radiation-curable composition optionally further comprises ananti-foaming agent. Examples of anti-foaming agents includesilicon-based anti-foaming agents (e.g. several TEGO® antifoam agentsfrom Evonik (Foamex, Airex)); several Surfynol™ (e.g. DF58, DF62, DF66,and DF178 and DF695) and Airase anti-foaming agents from Air Products;Silcolapse® from Bluestar™ Silicones; several anti-foaming agents fromSilchem; Octosperse from Tiarco Chemical; several SILFOAM® compoundsfrom Wacker; several BYK anti-foaming agents (e.g. BYK-1740, BYK-1770,BYK-1780, BYK-1785 and BYK-1798) from BYK Chemie); alkoxylates (e.g.several DOWFAX™ anti-foaming agents from Dow); several anti-foamingagents from Ineos; and others such as BYK-012, BYK-016, BYK-052,BYK-057, BYK-081, BYK-088, BYK-1790 and BYK-1794 from BYK Chemie andSurfynol™ DF-70 and DF-220 from Air Products.

Preferably the radiation-curable compositions contain 0.04 to 2 wt %,more preferably 0.1 to 1.0 wt % of anti-foaming agent.

The radiation-curable composition used in step (i) preferably has a highviscosity when measured at a low shear rate (this helps to retain thesurface profile arising from the screen-printing step until such time asthe composition is cured).

Furthermore, the radiation-curable composition used in step (i)preferably has a low viscosity when measured at a high shear rate (thishelps the composition to flow smoothly when it is forced through holesin the screen).

Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the radiation-curable composition usedin step (i) preferably has a viscosity of 30 to 1000 Pa·s (morepreferably 50 to 900 Pa·s) when measured at a shear rate of 0.1 s⁻¹ at20° C. and a viscosity of <20 Pa·s (more preferably <5 Pa·s) whenmeasured at a shear rate of 1000 s⁻¹ at 20° C. The viscosity whenmeasured at a shear rate of 1000 s⁻¹ at 20° C. is preferably >0.2 Pa·s,more preferably >0.5 Pa·s, e.g. about 1 Pa·s.

The Physica MCR301 rheology meter from Anton Paar GmbH is a suitablemachine to measure the specific shear rate and time dependentrheological parameters. Preferably the rheological parameters (e.g.viscosity) are measured at 20° C. using the cone-plate in rotation mode.

The thickening agent e) is useful for ensuring that theradiation-curable composition retains its three-dimensional shape duringthe time window between applying and curing of the composition. Thethickening agent is preferably a compound or combination of compoundsthat is capable of bringing the viscosity of the radiation-curablecomposition when measured at a shear rate of 0.1 s⁻¹ at 20° C. to avalue of at least 30 Pa·s, preferably at least 50 Pa·s, while at thesame time providing a viscosity when measured at a shear rate of 1000s⁻¹ at 20° C. of less than 20 Pa·s, preferably less than 5 Pa·s.

The ratio of the viscosity of the radiation-curable composition whenmeasured at a shear rate of 0.1 s⁻¹ to the viscosity when measured at ashear rate of 1000 s⁻¹ is preferably between 1.5 and 5000, morepreferably between 10 and 800, especially between 40 and 600, whenmeasured at 20° C. In order to achieve a desired combination of desiredviscosities at low and high shear rates, the thickening agent preferablyis or comprises a rheology modifier.

Rheology modifiers include polyhydroxycarboxylic acid amides (e.g.BYK®-405, BYK®-R605); polyhydroxycarboxylic acid esters (e.g.BYK®-R606); modified ureas (e.g. BYK®-410, BYK®-420); urea-modifiedpolyurethanes (e.g. BYK®-425); branched polyurethanes (e.g. BYK®-428);hydrophobically modified alkali swellable or solluble emulsions (e.g.Solthix® A100 from Lubrizol, several Eka Flow polymers from AkzoNobel);N-(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine, several Acrysol™ rheology modifiersfrom Dow®, hydrophilic polymers soluble in the composition, andcombinations thereof. Preferred hydrophilic polymers include polyvinylalcohol, polyethyleneglycol, poly(vinylpyrrolidinone), poly(acrylicacid), poly(2-oxazoline), polyethylenimine, polyacrylamide,poly(N-isopropylacrylamide), polyethers, maleic anhydride copolymers andpolyelectrolytes.

Particulate solids may also be used as thickening agents, alone oroptionally in combination with a rheology modifier. Preferredparticulate solids include inorganic fillers, for example crystallineand amorphous silica, carbon black, clay particles, aluminum silicate,metal oxides (e.g. titanium dioxide, iron oxide, aluminium oxide) andmetal carbonates (e.g. calcium carbonate), and the like. Furthermore,the particulate solid can also improve the robustness of the texture onthe resultant textured membrane, increasing its abrasion resistance.Examples of particulate solids include optionally organically modifiedhydrophilic (fumed or precipitated) metal oxides such as SiO₂, TiO₂ andAl₂O₃ (e.g. several Aerosil® grades from Evonik, several HDK® agentsfrom Wacker, several Xysil grades from Xunyu Chemical, severalCAB-O-SIL® products from Cabot, Laevisil SP from Baerlocher); naturaland synthetic clays, e.g. smectites and hormites, e.g. hectorites,laponites, bentonites and aluminum silicates (e.g. several Bentolite®products from BYK® and several Bentone® products from Elementis).

Preferably the particulate solid, when present, has an average particlesize below 1 μm, more preferably below 50 nm, especially below 30 nm,e.g. around 7 nm or around 20 nm. The particle size is related to thespecific surface area as may be determined by the Brunauer, Emmett andTeller (BET) method of adsorption of nitrogen gas. The particulatesolid, when present, preferably has a specific surface area>50 m²/g,more preferably >150 m²/g, especially >250 m²/g.

In general a combination of additives gives better results. Thus thecomposition may comprise a combination of several thickening agents, forexample several particulate solids and/or rheology modifiers.

Preferably the composition comprises 1 to 15 wt %, more preferably 2 to12 wt %, especially 3 to 9 wt %, of component e).

The radiation-curable composition used in step (i) optionally furthercomprises f) a crosslinking agent comprising at least two ethylenicallyunsaturated groups and having a NAMW of at least 800 Daltons, e.g. from800 to 8,000 Daltons.

The crosslinking agents (components b) and f), when present) preferablyhave two to six ethylenically unsaturated groups, more preferably two orthree, especially two ethylenically unsaturated groups.

Commercially available crosslinking agents which may be used ascomponent f) are available from Sartomer and include aliphatic urethanes(e.g. CN9002, CN910, CN9245S, CN962, CN964, CN965, CN966, CN991, CN996and CN998); aromatic urethanes (e.g. CN9761 and CN9170); polyesteracrylates (e.g. CN2203, CN2609 and CN704); epoxy-functional oligomers(e.g. CN186, CN790, CN2003EU and CNUVE150/80); silicone oligomers (e.g.CN9800 and CN990); melamine oligomers (e.g. CN9890); acrylic oligomers(e.g. CN146, CN704, CN816, CN820, CN821, CN823 and CN824).

Further examples of commercially available crosslinking agents which maybe used as component f) are available from Allnex and include aliphaticand aromatic urethane acrylates such as UCECOAT 6569, UCECOAT 7655, IRR598, Ebecryl 244, Ebecryl 264, Ebecryl 2002, Ebecryl 2003, Ebecryl 204,Ebecryl 205, Ebecryl 210, Ebecryl 215, Ebecryl 230, Ebecryl 245, Ebecryl265, Ebecryl 6202, polyester acrylates such as Ebecryl Leo 10801,Ebecryl 2047, Ebecryl 524, Ebecryl 525 Ebecryl 870, Ebecryl 881, epoxyacrylates such as Ebecryl Leo 10601, Ebecryl 3420, Ebecryl 3608, Ebecryl3639, Ebecryl 3703, Ebecryl 3708, Ebecryl 604, Ebecryl 605, Ebecryl 608,acrylic oligomers such as Ebecryl 740/40 and Ebecryl 7100.

Still further examples of commercially available crosslinking agentswhich may be used as component f) are available from BOMAR and includepolycaprolactone urethane acrylates such as XRC-841, polyether urethaneacrylates such as BR-144, BR-302, BR-344, BR-3641AJ, BR-371S, BR-374,BR-543, BR-571, BR-582, polyester urethane acrylates such as BR-441B,BR-471, BR-704P, BR-741, BR-742P, BR-7432 GB, BR-7432GI30, BR-744P andmultifunctional acrylate such as BR-970BT, BR-990 and XMA-2245.

Further examples of commercially available crosslinking agents which maybe used as component f) include GENOMER 1122, 2252, 2255, 4215, 4302,4312, 4316 and 4690, and UA 00-022, available from Rahn; PHOTOMER 6892,6230 and 6008 available from IGM Resins; NK OLIGO™ U-15HA, UA-W2A,UA-7100, UA-200PA and UA-290™ available from SHIN-NAKAMURA CHEMICAL CO.Ltd.; LAROMER LR8987 from BASF; and VERBATIM HD50 and PHVX55 fromCHEMENCE.

Preferably the composition comprises 1 to 15 wt %, more preferably 1.5to 12 wt %, especially 2 to 10 wt %, e.g. 4 or 6 or 8 wt % of componentf).

The composition may contain other components, for example curablecompounds which are free from ionic groups (e.g. methyl (meth)acrylate,N-(2-hydroxyethyl)acrylamide etc.), acids, pH controllers,preservatives, viscosity modifiers, stabilisers, dispersing agents,organic/inorganic salts, anionic, cationic, non-ionic and/or amphotericsurfactants, buffers and the like.

The preferred pH for the composition depends to some extent on whetherthe curable ionic compound is in the free acid or salt form and whetherthe ionic group is anionic or cationic. Preferably the composition has apH of 0.5 to 12. When the curable ionic compound carries an anionicgroup and is at least 95% in the salt form the composition preferablyhas a pH of 0 to 10, more preferably 0.5 to 6.

When the curable ionic compound carries a cationic group the compositionpreferably has a pH of 2 to 10, more preferably 4 to 8.

In a particularly preferred aspect, the radiation-curable compositionused in the process of the first aspect of the present invention (whichalso forms a further feature of the present invention) comprises:

-   a) 12 to 60 wt % (preferably 20 to 50 wt %) of curable ionic    compound(s) comprising one acrylic group and one or more acidic or    basic group selected from sulfo, carboxy, phosphato, quaternary    amino and tertiary amino groups;-   b) 4 to 40 to 45 wt % (preferably 9 to 25 wt %) of crosslinking    agent(s) comprising at least two ethylenically unsaturated groups    and having a number average molecular weight (“NAMW”) below 800;-   c) 5 to 50 wt % (preferably 10 to 35 wt %) of inert solvent(s);-   d) 0.01 to 10 wt % (preferably 0.05 to 5 wt %) of free-radical    initiator(s);-   e) 1 to 15 wt % (preferably 2 to 12 wt %) of thickening agent(s)    comprising an inorganic filler selected from hydrophilic metal    oxides, carbon black, clays and calcium carbonate in a form which    has an average particle size below 0.05 μm and/or a BET surface area    greater than 50 m²/g (e.g. greater than 150 50 m²/g); and-   f) 1 to 15 wt % (preferably 1.5 to 12 wt %) of crosslinking agent(s)    comprising at least two ethylenically unsaturated groups and having    a NAMW of 800 to 8,000 Daltons.

The above composition preferably has a viscosity at 20° C. and shearrate of 0.1 s⁻¹ of between 30 to 1000 Pa·s and a viscosity at 20° C. andshear rate of 1,000 s⁻¹ of between 0.2 and 20 Pa·s.

In one embodiment, when the radiation-curable composition comprises apoorly soluble compound having an acrylamide group such asN,N′-methylene bisacrylamide, the composition preferably furthercomprises g) a non-curable salt(s) dissolved in the composition, e.g. inan amount of 1 to 45 wt %, more preferably of 2 to 35 wt %.

The non-curable salt can be any salt which is not capable of forming acovalent bond with the crosslinking agent under the conditions used tocure the composition and which dissolves in the radiation-curablecomposition. Typically the non-curable salt comprises an anionic groupderived from an acid (especially an inorganic acid) and a cationic group(especially and inorganic cationic group). The non-curable saltpreferably has a solubility in water at 25° C. of at least 250 g/L, morepreferably at least 400 g/L. Preferred non-curable salts are inorganicsalts, for example inorganic lithium, sodium, potassium, ammonium,magnesium and calcium salts and mixtures comprising two or more suchsalts. Preferred anions include thiocyanate, chlorate, perchlorate,chlorite, iodide, bromide, nitrate, chloride and nitrite. The anionpreferably is other than sulphate, sulphite, phosphate and fluoride.

Preferred non-curable salts include lithium chloride, lithium bromide,lithium nitrate, lithium iodide, lithium chlorate, lithium thiocyanate,lithium perchlorate, lithium tetrafluoroborate, lithiumhexafluorophosphate, lithium hexafluoroarsenate, ammonium thiocyanate,ammonium chloride, ammonium iodide, ammonium nitrate, sodium chloride,sodium bromide, sodium nitrate, sodium thiocyanate, calcium nitrate,calcium thiocyanate, calcium bromide, calcium chlorate, calciumperchlorate, calcium iodide, calcium tetrafluoroborate, calciumhexafluorophosphate, calcium hexafluoroarsenate, magnesium chloride,magnesium bromide, magnesium nitrate, magnesium thiocyanate, potassiumthiocyanate, potassium chlorate, and mixtures comprising two or moresuch salts. Most preferred are lithium chloride, lithium bromide,lithium hydroxide, lithium nitrate, ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate,calcium nitrate and mixtures comprising two or more such salts.

Preferably the composition is free from, or substantially free from,methacrylic compounds (e.g. methacrylate and methacrylamide compounds),which are free from acrylic groups and comprise one or more methacrylicgroups.

By “substantially free from” we mean contains less than 5 wt %, morepreferably less than 2 wt %, especially less than 1 wt %. Thus thecomposition preferably comprises less than 5 wt %, more preferably lessthan 2 wt %, especially less than 1 wt % methacrylic compounds.

Thus the preferred composition is free from, or substantially free from,divinyl benzene, styrene and methacrylic compounds.

Optionally the composition comprises further ingredients, e.g. aflow/leveling agent, a slip additive and/or a stabiliser.

Hitherto membranes have often been made in slow and energy-intensiveprocesses, often having many stages. The present invention enablestextured, composite membranes to be prepared in a simple process thatmay be run continuously for long periods of time to mass producemembranes relatively cheaply.

The thickness of the textured, composite membrane, including thetexture, is preferably less than 900 μm, more preferably less than 450μm, especially between 25 and 300 μm, more especially between 50 and 250μm.

The membrane used in step (i) of the process according to the firstaspect of the present invention may be purchased or one may prepare themembrane as part of the overall process for making the texturedmembrane. The membrane used in step (i) preferably comprises a poroussupport, although this is not mandatory.

Thus in a second aspect of the present invention, the process furthercomprises the preparation of the membrane used in step (i) by a processcomprising the steps (A) and (B):

-   (A) impregnating a porous support with a radiation-curable    composition;-   (B) forming the membrane by irradiating and thereby curing the    radiation-curable curable composition present in the porous support.

The process according to the second aspect of the present inventionprovides surprisingly good adhesion between the membrane and thetextured surface profile added in steps (i) and (ii). While not wishingto be bound by any theory, it could be that the adhesion is beingenhanced by some of the radiation curable groups still present in themembrane from step (B) polymerising with the radiation curablecomposition used to form the surface texture in steps (i) and (ii). In apreferred embodiment the membrane comprises ethylenically unsaturatedgroups at its surface. The presence of such groups can enhance theadhesion between the membrane and the textured surface profile.

In step (A) one may use a radiation-curable compositions as describedgenerally above for step (i), although one will usually omit componente) because this material increases viscosity and therefore reduces theability of the composition to impregnate the porous support preferablyin step (A). Thus the radiation-curable composition used in step (A)preferably comprises no or less particulate solids than theradiation-curable composition used in step (i). The radiation-curablecomposition used in step (i) preferably has a higher viscosity than theradiation-curable composition used in step (A).

The porous support may also be treated to modify its surface energy,e.g. to values above 45 mN/m, preferably above 55 mN/m.

In order to produce a sufficiently flowable composition for applicationby a high speed coating machine, it is preferred that theradiation-curable composition used in step (A) has a viscosity below5000 mPa·s when measured at 35° C., more preferably from 1 to 1500 mPa·swhen measured at 35° C. Most preferably the viscosity of the compositionused in step (A) is from 2 to 500 mPa·s when measured at 35° C. Forcoating methods such as slide bead coating the preferred viscosity isfrom 2 to 150 mPa·s when measured at 35° C.

Photoinitiators may be included in the composition used in step (A), asmentioned above in relation to step (ii), and are usually required whencuring uses UV or visible light radiation.

While it is possible to prepare the textured membranes on a batch basisusing a stationary support, to gain full advantage of the invention itis much preferred to prepare the textured membrane on a continuous basisby screen-printing a moving membrane. The membrane may be in the form ofa roll which is unwound continuously or the membrane may rest on acontinuously driven belt (or a combination of these methods). Using suchtechniques the composition can be applied to the membrane on acontinuous basis or it can be applied on a large batch basis.

In the second aspect of the present invention, the porous support may beimpregnated with a first curable composition by applying the compositionto the porous support by any suitable method, for example by curtaincoating, extrusion coating, air-knife coating, slide coating, nip rollcoating, forward roll coating, reverse roll coating, dip coating, kisscoating, rod bar coating or spray coating. The coating of multiplelayers can be done simultaneously or consecutively.

For convenience we will refer to the radiation-curable composition usedin step (A) (i.e. to prepare the membrane which is used in step i)) asthe “first radiation-curable composition” and the radiation-curablecomposition used in step (i) (i.e. the radiation-curable compositionwhich is screen applied to the membrane) as the “secondradiation-curable composition”.

Thus in a preferred process according to the second aspect of thepresent invention steps (A), (B), (i) and (ii) are performedcontinuously, i.e. the process according to the second aspect of thepresent invention is preferably a continuous process.

The process according to the second aspect of the present invention ispreferably performed using a manufacturing unit comprising the followingcomponents:

-   (a) a first curable composition application station for impregnating    a porous support with a first radiation-curable composition;-   (b) a first irradiation source for irradiating and thereby curing    the radiation-curable curable composition present in the porous    support, thereby forming a membrane;-   (c) a second curable composition application station for applying a    second radiation-curable composition onto the membrane;-   (d) a second irradiation source for irradiating and thereby curing    the membrane carrying the second radiation-curable composition,    thereby forming a textured membrane;-   (e) a textured membrane collecting station; and-   (f) a means for moving the porous support impregnated with the first    radiation-curable composition to the first irradiation source, a    means for moving the formed membrane to the second curable    composition application station, a means for moving the membrane    carrying the second radiation-curable composition to the second    irradiation source and a means for moving the textured membrane to    the textured membrane collecting station.

The curable composition application stations may be located at upstreampositions relative to the respective irradiation sources and theirradiation sources are located at an upstream position relative to thetextured membrane collecting station.

For convenience the same means may be used for performing all of step(f), for example a series of belts and/or rollers may be used to performall of the moving mentioned in step (f).

With suitable coating techniques, the curable compositions may beapplied to the porous support and membrane while the porous supportand/or membrane are moving at a speed of over 5 m/min, e.g. more than 10m/min or even higher, such as 20 m/min, 30 m/min or up to 100 m/min, canbe reached.

Before applying either or both of the curable compositions the surfaceof the porous support and/or the membrane may be subjected to a coronadischarge treatment, glow discharge treatment, plasma treatment, flametreatment, ultraviolet light irradiation treatment or the like, e.g. forthe purpose of improving its wettability and the adhesiveness. Treatingthe support is particularly desired where it is intended for the supportto remain in the textured membrane in order to provide mechanicalstrength.

For improving the adhesiveness of the second radiation-curablecomposition to the membrane, the membrane may be pre-treated tointroduce reactive groups, e.g. by grafting or by treating it with (asolution of) an adhesion promoter, and/or an adhesion promoter may beincluded in the second radiation-curable composition.

The preferences for the irradiation in step (B) are as described abovein relation to step (ii), although of course steps (ii) and (B) may usedifferent wavelengths, irradiation times and intensities, depending onparticular radiation-curable compositions used in each of these steps.

In step (ii) and step (B) (when performed), the curing is preferablyachieved by irradiating the relevant radiation-curable composition forless than 10 seconds, more preferably less than 5 seconds, especiallyless than 3 seconds, more especially less than 2 seconds. In acontinuous process the irradiation occurs continuously and the speed atwhich the curable composition moves through the beam of the irradiationis mainly what determines the time period of curing time.

When high intensity UV light is used for curing a considerable amount ofheat may be generated. To prevent over-heating one may therefore applycooling air or cooling liquid to the lamps and/or the support/texturedmembrane. Cooling rollers may also be used to reduce the temperature ofthe membrane. Often a significant dose of IR light is irradiatedtogether with the UV-beam. In one embodiment curing is performed byirradiation using UV light filtered through an IR reflecting quartzplate.

The support referred to in step (A) may be a woven or non-wovensynthetic fabric, e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene, polyacrylonitrile,polyvinyl chloride, polyester, polyamide, and copolymers thereof, orporous textured membranes based on e.g. polysulfone, polyethersulfone,polyphenylenesulfone, polyphenylenesulfide, polyimide, polyethermide,polyamide, polyamideimide, polyacrylonitrile, polycarbonate,polyacrylate, cellulose acetate, polypropylene, poly(4-methyl1-pentene), polyinylidene fluoride, polytetrafluoroethylene,polyhexafluoropropylene, polychlorotrifluoroethylene, and copolymersthereof. Commercially available porous supports and strengtheningmaterials are available commercially, e.g. from Freudenberg FiltrationTechnologies (Novatexx materials) and Sefar AG.

The textured membranes of the invention are primarily intended for usein ion exchange process, e.g. electrodialysis or reverseelectrodialysis, especially for the generation of blue energy. Howeverit is envisaged that the textured membranes are also useful for otherpurposes.

According to a third aspect of the present invention there is providedan ion-exchange membrane having a textured surface profile obtained by aprocess according to the first or second aspect of the presentinvention.

According to a fourth aspect of the present invention there is provideduse of a textured membrane according to the third aspect of the presentinvention in an ion exchange process, e.g. in electrodialysis or reverseelectrodialysis, for the generation of energy, the treatment of water orfor the harvesting of salts and/or metals.

According to a fifth aspect of the present invention there is providedan electrodialysis or reverse electrodialysis unit, anelectrodeionization module, a capacitive deionization device (e.g. aflow through capacitor), a diffusion dialysis apparatus or a membranedistillation module, comprising one or more textured membranes accordingto the present invention. The electrodeionization module is preferably acontinuous electrodeionization module.

Preferably the electrodialysis or reverse electrodialysis unit or theelectrodeionization module or the flow through capacitor comprises atleast one anode, at least one cathode and one or more textured membranesaccording to the present invention. Further the unit preferablycomprises an inlet for providing a flow of salty water through thechannel of the cell according to the present invention and—for thereverse electrodialysis unit—an inlet for providing a flow of waterhaving a different solute content along the outside wall(s) of the cellsuch that ions pass through the membranes.

In a preferred embodiment the unit comprises at least 1, more preferablyat least 4, e.g. about 36, 64, 200, 600 or up to 1500, texturedmembranes according to the first aspect of the present invention, thenumber of cells being dependent on the application.

The present invention is illustrated by the following Examples in whichall parts and percentages are by weight.

In the following Examples the following abbreviations are used:

AMPS is 2-Acryloylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid from Hang-Zhou(China). DMAPAA-Q is a 75 wt % solution of N,N-Dimethylaminopropylacrylamide, methyl chloride quarternary in water from Kohjin(Japan). MBA is N,N'-methylene bisacrylamide crosslinking agent of NAMW154 from Sigma Aldrich. BAHP is 1,4-bis(acryloyl) homopiperazinecrosslinking agent of NAMW below 800, synthesized as described in WO2010/106356. CN965 is an aliphatic urethane diacrylate crosslinkingagent of NAMW 5,600 from Sartomer. CN910A70 is an aliphatic urethanediacrylate crosslinking agent of NAMW 3600, diluted with 30%tripropylene glycol diacrylate, from Sartomer. CN998B80 is an aliphaticurethane diacrylate crosslinking agent of NAMW 2,200, diluted with 20%hexanediol diacrylate, from Sartomer. CN2203 is a polyester diacrylatecrosslinking agent of NAMW 3,400 from Sartomer. CN2609 is a polyesterdiacrylate crosslinking agent of NAMW <800 from Sartomer. CN704 is apolyester diacrylate crosslinking agent of NAMW 5,000 from Sartomer.CN186 is an epoxy diacrylate crosslinking agent of NAMW 1,800 fromSartomer. CN2003EU is an epoxy diacrylate crosslinking agent of NAMW3,000 from Sartomer. CNUVE150/80 is an epoxy diacrylate crosslinkingagent of NAMW 4,000, diluted with 20% tripropylene glycol diacrylate,from Sartomer. CN964A85 is an aliphatic polyester based urethanediacrylate oligomer of NAMW 3,700 diluted with 15% tripropylene glycoldiacrylate, from Sartomer. SR-259 is polyethylene glycol (200)diacrylate crosslinking agent of NAMW 302 from Sartomer. MeHQ ishydroquinone monomethyl ether, a polymerisation inhibitor from Merck IPAis 2-propanol from Shell (an inert solvent) Darocur ™ is aphotoinitiator from BASF. 1173 AeroSil ® 380 is fumed silica particlesof 7 nm average particle size and a specific surface area of 380 m²/gfrom Evonik (a hydrophilic metal oxide thickening agent). Sigma S5505 isfumed silica particles of 0.2 μm average particle size and a specificsurface area of 200 m²/g from Sigma Aldrich (a hydrophilic metal oxidethickening agent). Sigma S5130 is fumed silica particles of 7 nm averageparticle size and a specific surface area of 395 m²/g from Sigma Aldrich(a hydrophilic metal oxide thickening agent). Shengke-206T isprecipitated calcium carbonate nano particles having an average particlesize of 40-70 nm and a specific surface area (BET) of 24-30 m²/g,obtained from ShengdaTech, Inc. BYK ®-405 is a solution ofpolyhydroxycarboxylic acid amides from BYK. BYK ®-425 is a 50 wt %solution of a polyurethane-based rheology control additive from BYK.BYK ®-428 is a 25 wt % solution of a polyurethane-based rheology controladditive from BYK. HEED is N-(2-hydroxyethyl)ethylenediamine fromSigma-Aldrich LiNO₃ is lithium nitrate. LiOH•H₂O is lithium hydroxidemonohydrate.

The viscosity values provided in the tables were measured at 20° C.using a Physica MCR301 rheology meter from Anton Paar GmbH using thecone-plate in rotation mode and are expressed in Pa·s. “Visco at 0.1s⁻¹” and “Visco at 1000 s⁻¹” mean the viscosity at a shear rate of 0.1s⁻¹ and 1000 s⁻¹ respectively. The procedure for measuring the viscosityvalues at the various shear rates was as follows: Starting at a time wewill call T₀, the composition under test was subjected to a shear rateof 0.1 s⁻¹ for 60 seconds, after which the shear rate was graduallyincreased to a value of 1000 s⁻¹ over a period of 150 seconds. Thecomposition was kept at a shear rate of 1000 s⁻¹ for 15 seconds afterwhich the viscosity value at 1000 s⁻¹ was determined and recorded as the“Visco at 1000 s⁻¹”. Then the shear rate was decreased abruptly to avalue of 0.1 s⁻¹. and kept at this shear rate for 60 seconds. Theviscosity value at 0.1 s⁻¹ was determined 25 seconds after the abruptdecrease (i.e. at T₀+250 seconds).

The “visco ratio” is the ratio of the viscosity value at a shear rate of0.1 s⁻¹ to the viscosity value at a shear rate of 1000 s⁻¹.

Examples 1 to 36 and Comparative Examples CE1 to CE3

Stock compositions A, B, C, D and E were prepared by mixing thecomponents shown in Table 1 below:

TABLE 1 Stock Compositions Stock Stock Composition A Composition BComponent Amount Amount Component type (parts) (parts) AMPS a) 49.1 0DMAPAA-Q a) 0 53.2 MBA b) 11.6 9.9 Water c) 20 7 IPA c) 8 8.4 Darocur ™d) 0.5 0.5 1173 LiOH•H₂O g) 9.8 0 LiNO₃ g) 0 20 MEHQ stabiliser 0.050.05 Surfactant surfactant 1 1 Stock Stock Stock Com- Com- Com- positionC position D position E Component Amount Amount Amount Component type(parts) (parts) (parts) AMPS a) 28.7 0 0 DMAPAA-Q a) 0 18.4 53.2 BAHP b)43.3 43.6 0 MBA b) 0 0 9.9 SR-259 b) 0 0 13.4 Water c) 11.2 33.0 0 IPAc) 9.5 0 0 Darocur ™ d) 0.5 0.5 0.5 1173 LiOH•H₂O g) 5.7 0 0 LiNO₃ g) 03.6 20 MEHQ stabiliser 0.05 0.05 0.05 Surfactant surfactant 1 1 1

Radiation-curable compositions according to the invention were thenprepared from the above stock compositions A to E by mixing theingredients indicated in Tables 2 to 6 below in a Planetary CentrifugalVacuum Mixer from Thinky, USA, at 40° C. and 2,000 rpm. The mixing wasperformed for 30 seconds in the presence of air and then for a further90 seconds under vacuum to remove any dissolved gases. Theradiation-curable compositions described in the Tables below werescreen-printed in a patternwise manner using a Flat Screen PrintingMachine AT-P760 from Alraun Technik, Germany, onto ion exchangemembranes from Fujifilm. The radiation-curable compositions derived fromStock Compositions A and C were printed onto anion exchange membranesand the radiation-curable compositions derived from Stock CompositionsB, D and E were printed onto cation exchange membranes.

The printed compositions were cured on the membranes using a LightHammer LH10 from Fusion UV Systems fitted with a D-bulb working at 100%intensity with a speed of 30 m/min (single pass) to give membraneshaving textured surface profiles. The surface profiles had a rectangularform of about 1 mm length, 1 mm width and a height of 120 μm. Thedistance between the protrusions was about 2 mm.

The wet adhesion of the cured, screen printed compositions to theunderlying membranes was measured by equilibrating the printed, texturedmembranes in water for 2 hours and the scratching the textured surfaceprofile with a finger nail. When the protrusions present in the texturedsurface profile could not be removed by scratching, the wet adhesion wasscored ‘good’; when they could be removed easily the wet adhesion it wasscored bad′; and when the protrusions could be removed only withdifficulty the wet adhesion was scored ‘acceptable’. The results areshown in the final row of each table below.

Comparative Examples CE1, CE2 and CE3 in Table 4 lacked component e)(the thickening agent).

Comparative Example CE3 did not thicken significantly

TABLE 2 Ex. 1 Ex. 2 Ex. 3 Ex. 4 Ex. 5 Ex. 6 Ex. 7 Ex. 8 Ex. 9 Stock 89.789.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 Composition A Aerosil ® 380 4 44 4 4 4 4 4 4 BYK ®-425 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 CN965 6 — —— — — — — — CN910A70 6 — — — — — — — CN998B80 — — 6 — — — — — — CN2203 —— — 6 — — — — — CN2609 — — — — 6 — — — — CN704 — — — — — 6 — — — CN186 —— — — — — 6 — — CN2003EU — — — — — — — 6 — CNUVE150/80 — — — — — — — — 6Wet adhesion good good good good good good good good good Visco at 0.1s⁻¹ 225 263 350 291 310 204 160 266 240 Visco at 1000 s⁻¹ 1.4 1.2 1.61.3 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.3 1.3 Visco ratio 159 219 219 224 207 170 133 205 185

TABLE 3 Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. 10 Ex. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18Stock 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 89.7 Composition BBYK ®-425 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 Aerosil ® 380 4 4 4 4 4 44 4 4 CN965 6 — — — — — — — — CN910A70 6 — — — — — — — CN998B80 — — 6 —— — — — — CN2203 — — — 6 — — — — — CN2609 — — — — 6 — — — — CN704 — — —— — 6 — — — CN186 — — — — — — 6 — — CN2003EU — — — — — — — 6 —CNUVE150/80 — — — — — — — — 6 Wet adhesion good good good good good goodgood good good Visco at 0.1 s⁻¹ 80 78 75 74 60 78 62 89 74 Visco at 1000s⁻¹ 1.0 0.9 0.7 0.9 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.0 1.1 Visco ratio 80 87 107 82 67 6552 89 67

TABLE 4 Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 CE1 CE2 Stock93.7 90.7 90.7 87.7 96.7 90.7 90.7 97 94 Composition A BYK ®-425 0.3 0.30.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0 0 AeroSil ® 380 3 6 3 6 3 0 0 0 0 Sigma S5505 0 00 0 0 3 0 0 0 Sigma S5130 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 CN964A85 3 3 6 6 0 6 6 3 6Wet adhesion good good good good acceptable good good bad bad Visco at0.1 s⁻¹ 266 552 240 495 310 147 265 1.2 1.6 Visco at 1000 s⁻¹ 1.1 1.61.2 1.6 1.6 1.0 1.3 1.1 1.2 Visco ratio 242 345 200 309 194 147 204 1 1

TABLE 5 Ex. 26 Ex. 27 Ex. 28 Ex. 29 Ex. 30 Ex. 31 Ex. 32 Ex. 33 CE3Stock 88 85 87.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 Composition A Stock 0 0 0 87 0 0 0 89.2 88Composition B Stock 0 0 0 0 89.7 0 0 0 0 Composition C Stock 0 0 0 0 089.7 0 0 0 Composition D Stock 0 0 0 0 0 0 89.7 0 0 Composition EShengke-206T 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 AeroSil ® 380 4 6 6 4 4 4 4 3.5 0BYK ®-405 2 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 BYK ®-425 0 0 0.5 0 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0BYK ®-428 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 HEED 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 CN998B80 6 6 6 6 6 66 6 6 Wet adhesion good good good good good good good good n.a. Visco at0.1 s⁻¹ 102 324 225 900 245 84 110 78 <1 Visco at 1000 s⁻¹ 0.9 1.3 1.21.5 1.3 0.8 1.0 0.7 <1 Visco ratio 113 249 188 600 188 105 110 111 1.

TABLE 6 Ex. 34 Ex. 35 Ex. 36 Stock Composition A 89.94 Stock CompositionB 88.7 88.5 AeroSil ® 380 4 5 5 BYK ®-425 0.06 0.3 0.5 CN998B80 6 6 6Wet adhesion good good good Visco at 0.1 s⁻¹ 138 160 46 Visco at 1000s⁻¹ 1.3 1.1 0.9 Visco ratio 106 145 51

1.-21. (canceled)
 22. An ion-exchange membrane having a textured surfaceprofile obtained by a process comprising the steps (i) and (ii): (i)applying a radiation-curable composition to a membrane in a patternwisemanner; and (ii) irradiating and thereby curing the radiation-curablecomposition present on the membrane; wherein the radiation-curablecomposition comprises: a) 10 to 65 wt % of curable ionic compound(s)comprising one ethylenically unsaturated group; b) 3 to 60 wt % ofcrosslinking agent(s) comprising at least two ethylenically unsaturatedgroups and having a number average molecular weight below 800; c) 0 to70 wt % of inert solvent(s); d) 0 to 10 wt % of free-radicalinitiator(s); and e) 0.5 to 25 wt % of thickening agent(s) comprising aparticulate solid in a form which has a specific surface area asdetermined by the Brunauer, Emmett and Teller (BET) method of adsorptionof nitrogen gas of greater than 50 m²/g.
 23. The ion-exchange membraneaccording to claim 22 which further comprises a porous support and acured radiation-curable curable composition present in the poroussupport.
 24. The ion-exchange membrane according to claim 22 wherein theradiation-curable composition applied to the membrane forms the texturedsurface profile.
 25. The ion-exchange membrane according to claim 22wherein the particulate solid is in a form which has a BET surface areagreater than 150 m²/g.
 26. The ion-exchange membrane according to claim22 wherein the particulate solid is in a form which has a BET surfacearea greater than 250 m²/g.
 27. The ion-exchange membrane according toclaim 22 wherein the curable ionic compound(s) comprises an acidic groupselected from the group consisting of a sulpho, carboxy and/or phosphatogroup.
 28. The ion-exchange membrane according to claim 22 wherein thecurable ionic compound(s) comprises a quaternary ammonium group.
 29. Theion-exchange membrane according to claim 22 wherein theradiation-curable composition used in step (i) has a viscosity of 30 to1000 Pa·s at a shear rate of 0.1 s⁻¹ and a viscosity of <20 Pa·s at ashear rate of 1000 s⁻¹, when measured at 20° C.
 30. The ion-exchangemembrane according to claim 22 wherein the ratio of the viscosity of theradiation-curable composition used in step (i) when measured at a shearrate of 0.1 s⁻¹ at 20° C. to the viscosity when measured at a shear rateof 1000 s⁻¹ at 20° C. is between 1.5 and
 5000. 31. The ion-exchangemembrane according to claim 22 wherein step i) comprises rotaryscreen-printing, flatbed screen-printing or rotary-stop-cylinderscreen-printing of the radiation-curable composition onto the membranein a patternwise manner.
 32. The ion-exchange membrane according toclaim 22 wherein the textured surface profile comprises protrusionswhich have an average height of 5 to 500 μm.
 33. The ion-exchangemembrane according to claim 22 wherein the (Area of Texture/TotalMembrane Area)×100% is 2 to 40%.
 34. The ion-exchange membrane accordingto claim 22 wherein the textured surface profile comprises protrusionswhich have an average length to average width ratio of 10:1 to 1:10. 35.The ion-exchange membrane according to claim 22 wherein the texturedsurface profile comprises protrusions which are separated from eachother by an average of at least 0.5 mm.
 36. The ion-exchange membraneaccording to claim 22 wherein the thickening agent e) comprises arheology modifier.
 37. The ion-exchange membrane of claim 22 wherein theparticulate solid comprises an inorganic filler selected fromcrystalline and amorphous silica, carbon black, clay particles, aluminumsilicate, metal oxides and metal carbonates.
 38. The ion-exchangemembrane according to claim 22 wherein the radiation-curable compositioncomprises: a) 12 to 60 wt % of curable ionic compound(s) comprising oneacrylic group and one or more acidic or basic group selected from sulfo,carboxy, phosphato, quaternary amino and tertiary amino groups; b) 4 to45 wt % of crosslinking agent(s) comprising at least two ethylenicallyunsaturated groups and having a number average molecular weight below800; c) 5 to 50 wt % of inert solvent(s); d) 0.01 to 10 wt % offree-radical initiator(s); e) 1 to 15 wt % of thickening agentcomprising an inorganic filler selected from the group consisting ofhydrophilic metal oxides, carbon black, clays and calcium carbonate; andf) 1 to 15 wt % of crosslinking agent(s) comprising at least twoethylenically unsaturated groups and having a number average molecularweight of 800 to 8,000 Daltons.
 39. The ion-exchange membrane accordingto claim 22 which further comprises a porous support and a curedradiation-curable curable composition present in the porous support andwherein: (i) the particulate solid is in a form which has a BET surfacearea greater than 150 m²/g; (ii) the curable ionic compound(s) comprisesan acidic group selected from the group consisting of a sulpho, carboxyand/or phosphato group or a quaternary ammonium group; and (iii) theparticulate solid comprises an inorganic filler selected fromcrystalline and amorphous silica, carbon black, clay particles, aluminumsilicate, metal oxides and metal carbonates.
 40. The ion-exchangemembrane according to claim 22 wherein: (i) the textured surface profilecomprises protrusions which have an average height of 5 to 500 μm; (ii)the (Area of Texture/Total Membrane Area)×100% is 2 to 40%; and (iii)the textured surface profile comprises protrusions which are separatedfrom each other by an average of at least 0.5 mm.
 41. The ion-exchangemembrane according to claim 39 wherein: (i) the textured surface profilecomprises protrusions which have an average height of 5 to 500 μm; (ii)the (Area of Texture/Total Membrane Area)×100% is 2 to 40%; and (iii)the textured surface profile comprises protrusions which are separatedfrom each other by an average of at least 0.5 mm.
 42. An electrodialysisor reverse electrodialysis unit, an electrodeionization module, acapacitive deionization device, a diffusion dialysis apparatus or amembrane distillation module, comprising one or more ion exchangemembranes according to claim 22.